## Problem 188 — rank:168

**Title:** Individual-based ecological prediction

**Added binding assumptions (LaTeX):**

```latex
At $N_t=0$ the normalized empirical trait law is undefined; assign an explicit cemetery state or compare the unnormalized counting measure and report extinction separately. Fix the metric on that extended space. State whether forecasts target conditional means or realized counts, whose mean-squared error has a nonzero process-noise floor. Additional individual detail is useful only relative to an independently evaluated aggregate-data baseline.
```

**Direct edits:** 0. **Fresh external checks:** None; supplied sources retained as provenance.